Africa is the cradle of modern political anthropology.

It was through studies of African societies, mostly among Luo-speakers of East Africa, that scholars first formulated classifications of “early states,” “segmentary states,” and stateless societies.

The Luo constitute one of Africa’s most widely dispersed population groups, following a major wave of migration during the 16th century that profoundly reshaped the cultural and political history of East Africa.

Initially classified as “stateless” societies situated on the periphery of the centralised, mostly Bantu-speaking states of the Great Lakes region, Luo societies later became the archetypal examples of “segmentary” political organisation.

However, the history of the Luo societies suggests that these classifications do not sufficiently describe the evolution of their political systems since the 16th century. These models instead describe societies already transformed by the external disruptions of the late 19th century, such as the Turkish-Egyptian invasions, which altered pre-existing forms of social organisation.

The “stateless” or “segmentary” Luo societies found in colonial anthropology were largely shaped by the disruptive impact of Turco-Egyptian military raids, rather than representing a long-standing historical condition.

This article outlines the history of the Luo migrations and examines the evolution of their political systems since the 16th century.